Blockchain-Integrated Stackelberg Model for Real-Time Price Regulation and Demand-Side Optimization in Microgrids
Umar A. Jamwal P.K. Kumar D. Gupta N. Gali V. Kumar A.
February 2026Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI)
Energies
2026#19Issue 3
Renewable-driven microgrids require transparent and adaptive coordination mechanisms to manage variability in distributed generation and flexible demand. Conventional pricing schemes and centralized demand-side programs are often insufficient to regulate real-time imbalances, leading to inefficient renewable utilization and limited prosumer participation. This work proposes a blockchain-integrated Stackelberg pricing model that combines real-time price regulation, optimal demand-side management, and peer-to-peer energy exchange within a unified operational framework. The Microgrid Energy Management System (MEMS) acts as the Stackelberg leader, setting hourly prices and demand response incentives, while prosumers and consumers respond through optimal export and load-shifting decisions derived from quadratic cost models. A distributed supply–demand balancing algorithm iteratively updates prices to reach the Stackelberg equilibrium, ensuring system-level feasibility. To enable trust and tamper-proof execution, smart-contract architecture is deployed on the Polygon Proof-of-Stake network, supporting participant registration, day-ahead commitments, real-time measurement logging, demand-response validation, and automated settlement with negligible transaction fees. Experimental evaluation using real-world demand and PV profiles shows improved peak-load reduction, higher renewable utilization, and increased user participation. Results demonstrate that the proposed framework enhances operational reliability while enabling transparent and verifiable microgrid energy transactions.
blockchain , demand response , game theory , microgrid , smart contract
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Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Nazarbayev University, Astana, 010000, Kazakhstan
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology, Ranchi, 835215, India
Department of Electrical Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, 302017, India
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, School of Physics, Engineering, and Computer Science, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, AL10 9AB, United Kingdom
Department of Electrical Engineering, Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh, 160012, India
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
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Книга Публикация научной статьи Волощук 2026 Book Publication of a scientific article 2026