Closed-Pore Engineering in Hard Carbon for Sodium Ion Storage: Advances, Challenges and Future Horizons

Zhang W. Du Y. Qiu Y. Li C. Razanau I. Kaisha A. Xu F. Wang H.
25 November 2025 John Wiley and Sons Inc

Advanced Energy Materials
2025 #15 Issue 44

Hard carbons (HCs) are considered one of the most promising anode materials for sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) due to their low cost, high reversible capacity, and low operational potential. However, due to the complex physicochemical and microstructural properties, the sodium storage mechanism remains debated in HCs, particularly in the low-potential plateau region, which has also hindered further improvements in reversible capacity and Initial Coulombic Efficiency (ICE). The state-of-the-art investigation manifests that appropriately-sized closed pores of HCs are critical for boosting the low-potential plateau capacity by Na metal nanocluster filling. Nevertheless, there is a lack of a comprehensive review on the design, construction, and Na⁺ storage mechanism in closed pores. In this contribution, design strategies of closed-pore pored and their effective characterization methods are systematically reviewed, with a particular emphasis on clarifying the main factors affecting closed-pore structures and correlation to Na⁺ storage performances. Afterward, in-depth sodium storage mechanism in closed pores is summarized, and the future research directions of closed-pore structures are discussed. This review is expected to provide a clear understanding of precise control over closed-pore structures and offer useful guidance for the rational design of HCs anode materials toward energy-dense SIBs.

anode materials , closed pores , hard carbon , sodium storage mechanism

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State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, Center for Nano Energy Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University and Shaanxi Joint Laboratory of Graphene (NPU), Shaanxi Laboratory for Advanced Materials., Xian, 710072, China
Shaanxi Caihong New Material Co.,Ltd, Xianyang, 721000, China
Laboratory of Physical-Chemical Technologies, SSPA Scientific and Practical Materials Research Centre of NAS of Belarus, Minsk, 220072, Belarus
Energy Laboratory, National Laboratory Astana (NLA), Nazarbayev University, Astana, 010000, Kazakhstan

State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing
Shaanxi Caihong New Material Co.
Laboratory of Physical-Chemical Technologies
Energy Laboratory

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