A novel approach for glassy carbon electrode modification using In2O3-enhanced molecularly imprinted polymers for diclofenac detection


Rakhymbay G. Avchukir K. Argimbayeva A. Manatbekova I. Lieberzeit P.A. Zappettini A. Tarabella G. DAngelo P. Galstyan V.
March 2026Elsevier Inc.

Microchemical Journal
2026#222

Unregulated trace pollutants such as pharmaceuticals and their metabolites pose serious environmental risks due to their persistence and poor biodegradability. Diclofenac, a widely used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, exemplifies this problem and underscores the urgent need for highly sensitive analytical devices capable of detecting it at trace levels. Although electrochemical sensors have advanced, new materials and fabrication strategies are still required to achieve reliable, low-level detection. In this work, a novel material design strategy is introduced for fabricating hybrid molecularly imprinted polymer films on glassy carbon electrodes through the electropolymerization of methacrylic acid in the presence of indium oxide nanoparticles. The electropolymerization method offers a rapid and cost-effective route to produce stable molecularly imprinted polymer layers. The study focuses on establishing and optimizing the key stages of this fabrication pathway, including imprint formation and template removal, which is a critical step for creating accessible recognition sites. Morphological, spectroscopic, and electrochemical analyses indicate successful polymer growth, efficient template extraction, and enhanced charge transfer properties. The resulting hybrid MIP architecture exhibits highly sensitive diclofenac detection, reaching sub-nanomolar limits. These findings demonstrate the effectiveness of combining methacrylic acid-based imprinting with In2O3 semiconductor nanoparticles and provide a foundation for the development of next-generation electrochemical sensors using this material-oriented design strategy.

Diclofenac detection , Electropolymerization , Glassy carbon electrode , Indium oxide , Methacrylic acid , Molecularly imprinted polymers

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Center of Physical Chemical Methods of Research and Analysis, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, 96a Tole bi Str, Almaty, 050012, Kazakhstan
Faculty for Chemistry, Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 42, Vienna, A-1090, Austria
Institute of Materials for Electronics and Magnetism, National Research Council of Italy (CNR-IMEM), Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, Parma, 43124, Italy

Center of Physical Chemical Methods of Research and Analysis
Faculty for Chemistry
Institute of Materials for Electronics and Magnetism

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