Immunomodulation of the Ocular Surface in Severe Dry Eye Disease: Expert-Driven Literature Review on Treatment Strategies with Description of Representative Challenging Cases

Giannaccare G. Issergepova B. Kozak M. Takáčová A. Wróbel-Dudzińska D. Begimbayeva Yenbekovna G. Bogdanici C.M. Deryapa I. Kušev K. Nagy Z. Stawska M. Troychenko L. Rejdak R. Chorągiewicz T.
2026 Adis

Ophthalmology and Therapy
2026

Introduction: Dry eye disease (DED) is a multifactorial inflammatory disorder characterized by tear-film hyperosmolarity, immune activation, and neurosensory dysfunction, which contribute to sustained ocular surface damage. Severe DED is common in autoimmune diseases, especially Sjögren syndrome (SS) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and is often refractory to first-line treatments. Methods: Current evidence on anti-inflammatory therapies was summarized by experts, and the management of challenging cases of autoimmune-related DED followed in different tertiary centers was presented. Results: Short courses of topical corticosteroids rapidly suppress disease flares and improve clinical signs, including breakup time and ocular surface staining. However, careful stewardship is required, as prolonged use may elevate intraocular pressure, induce cataract formation, and increase infectious risk. For long-term control, immunomodulators such as cyclosporine A (CsA), lifitegrast, and tacrolimus attenuate T-cell–mediated inflammation, promote goblet cell recovery, and stabilize the tear film. Newer CsA formulations have further improved bioavailability and tolerability. Five challenging cases including DED associated with SS or RA, refractory keratopathy, and corneal epithelial defect were described. Management included biological tears, lid-based care, and punctal plugs combined with once-daily CsA, leading to re-epithelialization, symptom relief, and visual stabilization. Adjunctive measures included oral doxycycline to improve meibomian gland function and reduce inflammation. Regular follow-up optimized treatment tapering, safety monitoring, and patient adherence. In two cases, urgent surgical intervention (conjunctival flap, amniotic membrane transplantation, and penetrating keratoplasty) was required. Conclusions: Autoimmune-related DED requires a stepwise treatment regimen for the stabilization of the ocular surface and the prevention of irreversible damage. This approach involves an initial short course of corticosteroids, followed by sustained immunomodulation (with CsA as the cornerstone), and supplemented by adjunctive therapies targeting meibomian glands and ocular surface epithelium. Multidisciplinary coordination and regular monitoring are essential for maintaining long-term ocular surface homeostasis and satisfactory quality of life and visual function.

Corticosteroids , Cyclosporine , DED , Dry eye disease , Inflammation , Ocular surface , Sjögren syndrome

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Eye Clinic, Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
Kazakh Eye Research Institute, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Department of Ophtalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Provincial Ophtalmological Hospital in Kraków, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Krakow University, Kraków, Poland
Department of Ophthalmology of Slovak Medical, University and University Hospital, Bratislava, Slovakia
Department of Diagnostics and Microsurgery of Glaucoma, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
Department of Ophthalmology, Kazakh-Russian Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Department of Ophthalmology, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iasi, Romania
Eye Clinic EuroZir+, Kiev, Ukraine
Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia
EXCIMER Eye Laser Centre, Bratislava, Slovakia
Department of Ophthalmology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
Ophthalmology Department, Mikołaj Kopernik Hospital, Piotrków Trybunalski, Poland
Cornea Department, SI “The Filatov Institute of Eye Diseases and Tissue Therapy NAMS of Ukraine”, Odesa, Ukraine
Department of General and Pediatric Ophthalmology, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland

Eye Clinic
Kazakh Eye Research Institute
Department of Ophtalmology
Department of Ophthalmology of Slovak Medical
Department of Diagnostics and Microsurgery of Glaucoma
Department of Ophthalmology
Department of Ophthalmology
Eye Clinic EuroZir+
Department of Ophthalmology
EXCIMER Eye Laser Centre
Department of Ophthalmology
Ophthalmology Department
Cornea Department
Department of General and Pediatric Ophthalmology

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