Genomes of the Golden Horde elites and their implications for the rulers of the Mongol Empire

Askapuli A. Kanzawa-Kiriyama H. Kakuda T. Kassenali A. Yessen S. Schamiloglu U. Schrodi S.J. Hawks J. Saitou N.
24 February 2026 National Academy of Sciences

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2026 #123 Issue 8

The Golden Horde, the northwestern extension of the Mongol Empire ruled by Genghis Khan’s descendants, holds a pivotal place in the history of Central Eurasia and Eastern Europe. Consequently, understanding the genetic legacy of Genghis Khan and his lineage has long been of both academic and public interest, especially concerning the hypothesized association of his Y-chromosome with haplogroup C3*. Here, we present ancient DNA data from four archaeological individuals—three males and one female—from medieval elite mausoleums of the Golden Horde in the Ulitau region of Kazakstan. Our genomic analyses reveal that the three male individuals are paternally related and share the Y-chromosome haplogroup C3*, confirming the association between the Y-chromosome haplogroup C3* and the Mongol Empire, supporting the long-standing hypothesis about the genetic legacy of Mongols. Additionally, our findings demonstrate that the Golden Horde elites primarily derive their genomes from Ancient Northeast Asians (ANA), with an additional ancestral component from either Ancient North Eurasians (ANE) or a Berel Scythian related population, e.g., the Kipchaks. Archaeological evidence, in turn, sheds light on a medieval population undergoing religious and cultural transition, offering insights into the societal changes experienced by Mongolian conquerors. Furthermore, through constructing an Identity by Descent (IBD) network, we successfully identify medieval relatives of these individuals on the Mongolian Plateau, linking genetic data to broader population dynamics. In essence, this study provides ancient DNA evidence that advances our understanding of the genetic background of the Mongolian elites and the population dynamics in Central Eurasia. Copyright

ancient DNA , Central Eurasia , Golden Horde , Mongol Empire , population genetics

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Department of Integrative Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, 53706, WI, United States
School of Sciences and Humanities, Nazarbayev University, Astana, 010000, Kazakhstan
Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Nature and Science, Ibaraki, Tsukuba, 305-0005, Japan
Department of Legal Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Yamanashi, Chuo, 409-3898, Japan
Center for the Study and Preservation of Cultural Heritage, Astana, 010000, Kazakhstan
Astana International University, Astana, 010000, Kazakhstan
Department of Medical Genetics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, 53706, WI, United States
Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, 53706, WI, United States
National Institute of Genetics, Shizuoka, Mishima, 411-8540, Japan

Department of Integrative Biology
School of Sciences and Humanities
Department of Anthropology
Department of Legal Medicine
Center for the Study and Preservation of Cultural Heritage
Astana International University
Department of Medical Genetics
Department of Anthropology
National Institute of Genetics

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