Finding quadruply imaged quasars with machine learning-I. Methods

Akhazhanov A. More A. Amini A. Hazlett C. Treu T. Birrer S. Shajib A. Liao K. Lemon C. Agnello A. Nord B. Aguena M. Allam S. Andrade-Oliveira F. Annis J. Brooks D. Buckley-Geer E. Burke D.L. Carnero Rosell A. Carrasco Kind M. Carretero J. Choi A. Conselice C. Costanzi M. Da Costa L.N. Pereira M.E.S. De Vicente J. Desai S. Dietrich J.P. Doel P. Everett S. Ferrero I. Finley D.A. Flaugher B. Frieman J. Garciá-Bellido J. Gerdes D.W. Gruen D. Gruendl R.A. Gschwend J. Gutierrez G. Hinton S.R. Hollowood D.L. Honscheid K. James D.J. Kim A.G. Kuehn K. Kuropatkin N. Lahav O. Lima M. Lin H. Maia M.A.G. March M. Menanteau F. Miquel R. Morgan R. Palmese A. Paz-Chinchón F. Pieres A. Plazas Malagón A.A. Sanchez E. Scarpine V. Serrano S. Sevilla-Noarbe I. Smith M. Soares-Santos M. Suchyta E. Swanson M.E.C. Tarle G. To C. Varga T.N. Weller J.
1 June 2022 Oxford University Press

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2022 #513 Issue 2 2407 - 2421 pp.

Strongly lensed quadruply imaged quasars (quads) are extraordinary objects. They are very rare in the sky and yet they provide unique information about a wide range of topics, including the expansion history and the composition of the Universe, the distribution of stars and dark matter in galaxies, the host galaxies of quasars, and the stellar initial mass function. Finding them in astronomical images is a classic needle in a haystack problem, as they are outnumbered by other (contaminant) sources by many orders of magnitude. To solve this problem, we develop state-of-the-art deep learning methods and train them on realistic simulated quads based on real images of galaxies taken from the Dark Energy Survey, with realistic source and deflector models, including the chromatic effects of microlensing. The performance of the best methods on a mixture of simulated and real objects is excellent, yielding area under the receiver operating curve in the range of 0.86-0.89. Recall is close to 100 per cent down to total magnitude i ∼21 indicating high completeness, while precision declines from 85 per cent to 70 per cent in the range i ∼17-21. The methods are extremely fast: Training on 2 million samples takes 20 h on a GPU machine, and 108 multiband cut-outs can be evaluated per GPU-hour. The speed and performance of the method pave the way to apply it to large samples of astronomical sources, bypassing the need for photometric pre-selection that is likely to be a major cause of incompleteness in current samples of known quads.

astronomical data bases: Surveys , gravitational lensing: Strong , methods: Statistical

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Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, 90095, CA, United States
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Nazarbayev University, Nur-Sultan, 010000, Kazakhstan
Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA), Post Bag 4, Pune, 411007, India
Kavli IPMU (WPI), UTIAS, University of Tokyo, Chiba, 277-8583, Japan
Department of Statistics, University of California, Los Angeles, 90095, CA, United States
Department of Political Science, University of California, Los Angeles, 90095, CA, United States
Department of Physics and Astronomy, PAB, 430 Portola Plaza, Box 951547, Los Angeles, 90095, CA, United States
Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, Department of Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, 94305, CA, United States
Department of Astronomy & Astrophysics, University of Chicago, Chicago, 60637, IL, United States
School of Physics and Technology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
Laboratoire dAstrophysique, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne (EPFL), Observatoire de Sauverny, Versoix, CH-1290, Switzerland
DARK, Niels Bohr Institute, Jagtvej 128, Copenhagen, 2200, Denmark
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, PO Box 500, Batavia, 60510, IL, United States
Kavli Institute for Cosmolo gical Physics, Univer sity of Chica go, Chicago, 60637, IL, United States
Laboratorio Interinstitucional de e-Astronomia-LIneA, Rua Gal. Jose Cristino 77, Rio de Janeiro, 20921-400, Brazil
Instituto de Fisica Teorica, Universidade Estadual Paulista, Sao Paulo, 01140-070, Brazil
Department of Physics & Astronomy, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics & Cosmology, Stanford University, PO Box 2450, Stanford, 94305, CA, United States
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, 94025, CA, United States
Center for Astrophysical Surveys, National Center for Supercomputing Applications, 1205 West Clark St., Urbana, 61801, IL, United States
Department of Astronomy, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1002 W. Green Street, Urbana, 61801, IL, United States
Institut de Fisica dAltes Energies (IFAE), Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, Barcelona, E-08193, Spain
Center for Cosmology and Astro-Particle Physics, Ohio State University, Columbus, 43210, OH, United States
Jodrell Bank Center for Astrophysics, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M139PL, United Kingdom
University of Nottingham, School of Physics and Astronomy, Nottingham, NG72RD, United Kingdom
Astronomy Unit, Department of Physics, University of Trieste, Via Tiepolo 11, Trieste, I-34131, Italy
INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, Trieste, I-34143, Italy
Institute for Fundamental Physics of the Universe, Via Beirut 2, Trieste, I-34014, Italy
Observatorio Nacional, Rua Gal. Jos é Cristino 77, Rio de Janeiro, 20921-400, Brazil
Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 48109, MI, United States
Hamburg er Sternwarte, Universitat Hamburg, Gojenbergsweg 112, Hamburg, D-21029, Germany
Centro de Investigaciones Energeticas, Medioambientales y Tecnologicas (CIEMAT), Madrid, 28040, Spain
Department of Physics, IIT Hyderabad, Telangana, 502285, India
Faculty of Physics, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitat, Scheinerstr. 1, Munich, 81679, Germany
Santa Cruz Institute for Particle Physics, Santa Cruz, 95064, CA, United States
Pakistan
Instituto de Fisica Teorica, UAM, CSIC, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid, 28049, Spain
Department of Astronomy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 48109, MI, United States
Univer sit äts-Sternwarte, Fakult ät f ür Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians Univer-sit ät M ünchen, Scheinerstr. 1, Munchen, D-81679, Germany
School of Mathematics and Physics, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072, QLD, Australia
Department of Physics, Ohio State University, Columbus, 43210, OH, United States
Center for Astrophysics

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, 94720, CA, United States
Australian Astronomical Optics, Macquarie University, North Ryde, 2113, NSW, Australia
Lowell Observatory, 1400 Mars Hill Rd, Flagstaff, 86001, AZ, United States
Departamento de Fisica Matem ática, Instituto de Fisica, Universidade de S ao Paulo, CP 66318, Sao Paulo, 05314-970, Brazil
Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 19104, PA, United States
Institucio Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avan cats, Barcelona, E-08010, Spain
Physics Department, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2320 Chamberlin Hall, 1150 University Avenue, Madison, 53706-1390, WI, United States
Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge, CB3 0HA, United Kingdom
Department of Astrophysical Sciences, Princeton University, Peyton Hall, Princeton, 08544, NJ, United States
Institut dEstudis Espacials de Catalunya (IEEC), Barcelona, E-08034, Spain
Institute of Space Sciences (ICE, CSIC), Campus UAB, Carrer de Can Magrans, s/n, Barcelona, E-08193, Spain
School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO171BJ, United Kingdom
Computer Science and Mathematics Division, Oak Ridge National Labo-ratory, Oak Ridge, 37831, TN, United States
Department of Physics, Stanford University, 382 Via Pueblo Mall, Stanford, 94305, CA, United States
Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstrasse, Garching, D-85748, Germany

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA)
Kavli IPMU (WPI)
Department of Statistics
Department of Political Science
Department of Physics and Astronomy
Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology
Department of Astronomy & Astrophysics
School of Physics and Technology
Laboratoire dAstrophysique
DARK
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory
Kavli Institute for Cosmolo gical Physics
Laboratorio Interinstitucional de e-Astronomia-LIneA
Instituto de Fisica Teorica
Department of Physics & Astronomy
Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics & Cosmology
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
Center for Astrophysical Surveys
Department of Astronomy
Institut de Fisica dAltes Energies (IFAE)
Center for Cosmology and Astro-Particle Physics
Jodrell Bank Center for Astrophysics
University of Nottingham
Astronomy Unit
INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste
Institute for Fundamental Physics of the Universe
Observatorio Nacional
Department of Physics
Hamburg er Sternwarte
Centro de Investigaciones Energeticas
Department of Physics
Faculty of Physics
Santa Cruz Institute for Particle Physics
Pakistan
Instituto de Fisica Teorica
Department of Astronomy
Univer sit äts-Sternwarte
School of Mathematics and Physics
Department of Physics
Center for Astrophysics

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Australian Astronomical Optics
Lowell Observatory
Departamento de Fisica Matem ática
Department of Physics and Astronomy
Institucio Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avan cats
Physics Department
Institute of Astronomy
Department of Astrophysical Sciences
Institut dEstudis Espacials de Catalunya (IEEC)
Institute of Space Sciences (ICE
School of Physics and Astronomy
Computer Science and Mathematics Division
Department of Physics
Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics

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